CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Literature review as viewed by Nworgu (1991), Oyetunde (2002) and Egga (2013) is the bedrock of any meaningful research as the procedures in the study are related to the background literature. Therefore, the researcher has made literature search of researches and reviewed articles in various educational books, journals and database. The review of this study is organized around the following sub-headings:
1. The Concept of Microteaching
2. Historical Development of Microteaching in Nigeria
3. Objectives and Nature of Microteaching in Teacher Education
4. Merits and Limitations of Microteaching
5. Different types of Microteaching Skills and their acquisition
6. Importance of Training in Teachers’ Preparation
7. The concept of teaching practice
8. Functions of teaching practice in Teacher Education Program
9. Theoretical Framework
10. Empirical studies of microteaching as a training technique and teaching practice
11. Appraisal of reviewed literature
The Concept of microteaching
Microteaching is one of the innovations to improve teacher education. According to Allen and Ryan (1969) microteaching is a scaled down teaching encounter. This is because it entails reduction in class size, duration of the lesson, objectives of the subject matter and number of skills to be acquired. The student teachers are expected to teach between 5-10 minutes. Every time they practice, their learning continues. The practices are used in microteaching especially in feedback and teach re-teach cycle which enhances effective teaching practice.
Student teacher teaches 10 students instead of 40-50 students in a normal class, spending 5-10 minutes for the micro-lesson instead of 35-40 minutes in a normal class, practice only one skill at a time instead of using many integrated skills in the normal lesson and having only one or two objectives from the content instead of having about four or five objectives for a normal lesson. There is reduction in the length of time, class size, task to be accomplished and skills to be employed.
Ofoefuna (2002) defined microteaching as a component skill approach to teachers’ preparation and training. Without adequate acquisition of teaching skills, learning process cannot be effective. McKnight (2003) viewed microteaching as laboratory training procedure for simplification of the complexities of teaching –learning process. In the attempt to define the concept of Micro-teaching, Abifarin (2004) examined the two words involved: Micro and teaching. Micro means something that is small while teaching means the art of giving instruction. When the two words are joined together, it becomes micro-teaching, which means giving instruction on a smaller scale. In agreement with Abifarin, Ajayi (2006) described micro-teaching as a system of controlled practice that makes it possible for student teachers to concentrate on specific teaching behaviors.
In addition, Yusuf (2006) described microteaching as the practical training technique which gives the students and the teacher the opportunity to master the skills inherent in teaching in a laboratory environment before actual class experience. Adewoyin (2007) defined micro-teaching as an instructional method employed in the professional training of teachers. Aggarwal (2007) described microteaching as a training procedure that aims at simplifying the complexities of the regular teaching procedure. The student teacher engages in a scaled down teaching situation in terms of time, class size, content of the subject matter and teaching tasks.
Teg (2007) defined microteaching as a process whereby student teacher learns to acquire the rudiments of teaching in the classroom. Microteaching prepares student teachers on what they need to master before going to the field for teaching practice. Microteaching is a course or practical experience which prepares the student teachers ahead of the challenges that await them in their future teaching career as educators. Patel and Mohasina (2011) described microteaching as an organized practice teaching which aims at giving instructors confidence, support and feedback. It is a quick, proven and fun way of helping teachers get off to a strong start. It is designed for the training of both of both pre-service and in-service teachers.
Furthermore, Egunjobi et al., (2011) described microteaching as a program that prepares student teachers for the main teaching practice. They explained that microteaching is an indispensable course for student teachers. This is because they need to observe and acquire for teaching tasks. Isa and Jusoff (2011) considered microteaching as the ultimate sessions where the undergraduates put into practice theories. Also, Singh (2011) described microteaching as a safe practice, a vehicle for continuous training and a new approach to supervision.
In addition, Konstantinos (2012) defined microteaching as a method of teacher training that is current and effective for acquisition of specific teaching skills. It is considered as a training technique for prospective teachers in Universities and Colleges of Education. It is considered as a precondition for the improvement of the quality of school education. In addition, Saxena and Khajanchee (2012) explained that microteaching is a teacher training technique which helps the student teachers to master the skills of teaching.
Recently, Tidwell (2013) viewed microteaching as a session of practice teaching that is videotaped for the teacher to watch. Microteaching is suitable for potential, new and existing teachers to review their teaching techniques and receive feedback from fellow teachers and administrators. The feedback received is used for making corrections to their teaching style accordingly. As every human activity or behavior is geared towards achieving a purpose so also, microteaching has aim, goals and objectives. Microteaching as an innovation in education has intention of training pre-service teachers in skills acquisition so as to make them effective and professional.
Historical Development of Microteaching in Nigeria
All human endeavors are traceable to their origins. The historical development of microteaching started from demonstration lessons. According to Ijaiya (2013), between 1950s and 1960s, there was low, unsatisfactory and poor performance of pupils in America. Teachers were held responsible and accountable for the poor condition of education by the society. Teachers were blamed for poor teaching methods and they too claimed that they were not properly equipped with the necessary teaching skills to perform to societal expectations. This called for experiments on the experiences which might be relevant for teaching in terms of innovative teacher education program by educators through series of innovations which were supported by substantial funding from Foundations and Governments. Examples of such foundations were Ford and Kettering. One of the beneficiaries of such financial aid was the University of Stanford group which developed microteaching. Prior to the development of microteaching, demonstration teaching was used traditionally. It was the immediate predecessor of microteaching in Stanford University. During the time of demonstration teaching for teachers’ training, a student teacher presented a lesson to a small group of fellow students while the rest of the class looked on. It was the demonstration lesson that developed and resulted to microteaching in 1963.
Fayaz (2011) gave a full record of microteaching historical development. Microteaching was named for the first time at Stanford University in United States of America when an experimental project on the identification of teaching skills was in progress under the guidance and supervision of the Faculty members in persons of Bush, Allen, McDonald and Acheson. The team of experts was assigned the development of testing and evaluation of tools to measure the attainment of teaching experiences which might be relevant to teaching interns in an innovative teacher education program. The team launched a new laboratory experience and approach in the preparation of teachers under the auspices of the Secondary Teacher Education Program (STEP).
The program was initially referred to as ‘Demonstration Teaching’. While developing the approach, those things that could make an effective teacher were identified through field activities and research work by Allen and his team as well as other group of individuals over the years. Those things identified were considered teachable, learnable and could bring desired change in behavior. That was how the concept of ‘Teaching Skills’ evolved. The problem and the search to find better ways of teaching these identified skills and making the teachers imbibe them with the objects of enhancing teacher competence and effectiveness brought about the whole idea of microteaching.
In the process, Keith Acheson who was a Doctoral student and a Researcher discovered a newspaper article about a German Scientist who invented a portable video tape recorder. Acheson was investigating the utility of the video tape recorder in technical teaching skills’ development. With the support of Allen, Bush and McDonald, Acheson explained several different uses of the portable videotape recorder and its potential and modifying channeling interns’ behaviors toward desired objectives and for examining alternative approaches for students’ teaching experiences. It was detected that videotape recorder could be used for recording the class interaction accurately. This led to the development of systematic and accurate method of giving student teachers feedback. As a result, there was formulation and development of microteaching technique of Plan---- Teach----Feedback----Re-plan----Re-teach-----Re-feedback (Singh, 2011).
During planning stage, the student teacher is mentored by an expert or an educator who serves as supervisor. The educator/supervisor demonstrates a skill at a time which the student teacher would like to watch, learn and uses in his lesson. The educator gives a model lesson and uses all the characteristics of the skill. After watching the educator, the student teacher plans his lesson on the particular skill. The student teacher selects the content, objectives, methods and materials and writes the lesson plan to be used for the lesson. The student teacher teaches using the skill he has watched and prepared for. The student teacher’s lesson is observed by the educator and the audience who take note of his strengths and weaknesses.
The recording of his performances could be done using printed materials, tape recorder or camcorder. The feedback is given by the supervisor and the audience. The student teacher can also do self-assessment of his teaching after reading the comments made by the assessors or after watching the payback machine. If he has minimal corrections and successful he goes to the next level and does not go for re-teach. He then prepares for another skill to be acquired. This implies that it is not all student teachers that go for re-teach. If he has too many errors, he re-plans his lesson. He may change his audience, methods and strategies. He prepares a new lesson plan and re-teaches. The supervisor and the audience watch him again and criticize his teaching. He is given re-feedback. If he is successful he goes for another skill acquisition but if not, he re-plans again until perfection is reached (Ajibade (2009), Fayaz (2011) and Saxena and Khajanchee (2012).
About 60 student teachers in the Intern Program were randomly divided into two equal groups during the summer of 1963. A group named experimental group got microteaching training while the other half had the standard student teaching experience in local cooperating schools. Video tape was first used in microteaching during that summer. It was discovered that the marriage between microteaching technique of training teachers and videotape was a happy association but Allen and Ryan (1969) warned that video tape was important; it is not a compulsory part of giving feedback in microteaching.
In addition, Egunjobi et al., (2011) traced the genesis of
microteaching globally to the evolution of the video technology in
Germany. They recorded that microteaching was traced to the handwork of
Keith Acheson, N.B. Robert and W. Allen Dwight of the Stanford
University. They also agreed with Fayaz (2011) that the development of
microteaching was boosted and supported by Ford Foundation. They
documented the fact that microteaching was initially named demonstration
teaching in agreement with Ijaiya (2013). Later microteaching was found
and recognized as an effective teacher training technique especially at
the pre-service level.
Between 1970s and 1980s, microteaching like
harmattan fire spread from United States of America (USA) to countries
like Malaysia, United Kingdom and Australia. Microteaching was
universally accepted as an indispensable strategy and a panacea for
effective teachers’ training in 1990s. Nigeria was not left behind in
the innovation.
