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The Evaluate The Concentration Of Particulate Matter And Gaseous Pollutants Present Within A 2km Radius Of The Charcoal Production Facility
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CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF STUDY
Charcoal is a woodfuel produced in rural areas and consumed in cities
and towns. Some of the factors influencing the choice of using charcoal
instead of firewood in urban areas include: Charcoal has a higher
calorific value per unit weight that firewood, it is therefore moree
conomic to transport charcoal over longer distances as compared to
firewood; Storage of charcoal takes less room as compared to firewood;
Charcoal is not liable to deterioration by insects and fungi which
attack firewood; Charcoal is almost smokeless and sulphur – free, as
such it is ideal fuel for towns and cities. It is estimated that
approximately 1.5 billion people in developing countries derive at least
90% of their energy requirements from wood and charcoal. Another one
billion people meet at least 50% of their energy needs this way. In most
developing countries, 90% of the people depend on fuelwood as their
chief source of fuel and each year the average user burns anywhere from a
fifth of a ton, in extremely poor, wood short areas such as India, to
well over a ton in parts of Africa and South Asia (GFC, undated). In
1999, it was estimated that 1.9 billion m³ of wood was burned for
cooking, to provide heat or to manufacture charcoal for later burning
(FAO, 1999).
Large-scale charcoal production, primarily in sub Saharan Africa, has been a
growing
concern due to its threat of deforestation, land degradation and
climate change impacts. It is cited as the most environmentally
devastating phase of this traditional energy supply chain, and despite
increasing per capita income, higher electrification rates, and
significant renewable energy potential, charcoal still remains the
dominant source of cooking and heating energy for eighty percent of
households in Sub Saharan Africa (SSA) (Arnold et al, 2006; Zulu and
Richardson, 2013). As a traditional fuel that has been used for hundreds
of years, it serves as a lifeline for the rapidly increasing
populations in the urban centers of the region, in addition to
potentially significant portions of the rural population. Due to its low
cost compared to other fuels like kerosene and liquefied petroleum gas,
as well as other factors that will be discussed in the coming sections,
the demand for charcoal is expected to continue rising dramatically in
the coming decades, despite best efforts by modern energy advocates.
Charcoal use in SSA is predicted to double by 2030, with over 700
million Africans relying on it as a durable, preferred, and cheap source
of energy. With a forecasted increase in consumption, there is a great
need to identify real versus perceived energy futures with respect to
charcoal. Research has shown that large-scale transitions to modern
energy sources will only occur once a certain income threshold is met,
while other studies have indicated that even with large increases in
earned income, the large majority of many SSA countries continue to
utilize charcoal. If a continued reliance on charcoal is suggested,
there is an even greater need to evaluate and address the
environmental and social issues associated with this highly influential, and largely
informal, industry.
Air pollution is the introduction of chemicals, particulate matter, or
biological materials that cause harm or discomfort to humans or other
living organisms, or cause damage to the natural environment or built
environment, into the atmosphere. It can be defined as the presence in
the outdoor or indoor atmosphere of one or more gaseous or particulate
contaminants in quantities, characteristics and of duration such as to
be injurious to human, plant or animal life or to property, or which
unreasonably interferes with the comfortable enjoyment of life and
property (Odigure, 1998). It has been difficult to achieve cooperation
for air pollution control in developing countries like Nigeria, whose
chief concern is to provide such basic need as food, shelter and
employment for her populace.
A substance in the air that can
cause harm to humans and the environment is known as an air pollutant.
Pollutants can be in the form of solid particles, liquid droplets, or
gases. In addition, they may be natural or man-made (Anderson, 2005).
The atmosphere is a complex dynamic natural gaseous system that is
essential to support life on planet Earth. Stratospheric ozone depletion
due to air pollution has
long been recognized as a threat to human
health as well as to the Earth's ecosystems. Indoor air pollution and
urban air quality are listed as two of the world's worst pollution
problems in the 2008 Blacksmith Institute World's Worst Polluted Places
report (Anderson, 2005).
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The
pollutants emitted from a charcoal production site have the ability to
cause adverse health affects such as respiratory diseases. The charcoal
producers in this region are not well enlightened and do not consider
the the dangers these emissions possess if the enter the environment in
significant levels. Hence, they would not be able tackle the problem of
air pollution and green house gas emissions produced by the pryolysis of
charcoal. Worryingly, the government through the medium of
environmental protection agencies do not pay much attention to these
process produces considerable amounts of green house gases and suspended
particle matter which are discharged into natural receptors, (majorly
air) leading to major environmental problems in the long run.
A review of the literature surrounding charcoal supply chains in Sub-Saharan
Africa paints a clear picture that the demand for this energy source will not remain
stagnant,
but will increase dramatically through the year 2030 . Even in
countries where electrification rates are at their highest, as in
Ghana, 60-70% of the population still use charcoal for cooking and
heating , a finding identified in numerous studies that deviates from
the traditional energy ladder model. Electricity rarely replaces
charcoal as a fuel, though increases in income lead to higher usage of
more refined fuels, like kerosene and LPG, to replace biomass; this
helps to illustrate the negative, and often misleading, correlation
found between charcoal and electrification. In some of the least
developed countries, like Liberia, where less than one percent of the
population is connected to grid electricity, 95% rely on traditional
biomass fuels in the form of wood and charcoal. In the growing rural
areas, charcoal is the primary fuel used for heating and cooking, as
poor infrastructure, high cost, and low-income levels limit market
growth for refined cooking fuels.
Health-related impacts associated with woodfuels have traditionally focused on effects
from their consumption. Indoor air pollution (IAP) is the primary
concern given the high concentrations of smoke and particulate matter
released during woodfuel combustion. Smith et al (2002) documented
trends in respiratory illness among disproportionate numbers of women
and children as a result of IAP from woodfuel combustion throughout the
developing world. However, little is known about the nhealth impacts
endured by charcoal producers during extraction and production phases.
For example, it is known that pyrolysis, the process utilized for the
production of charcoal, releases significant amounts of gaseous
by-products, including carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide and others known
to be deadly to humans in moderate concentrations through the use of
dose-response studies. Rural producers are known to work within close
proximity to high temperature kilns that off-gas these highly toxic
compounds, generating potential high risk for poisoning. In addition,
use of primitive tools can potentially lead to moderate or severe
injuries, which can prove fatal in rural areas that lack access to
adequate medical care. Academic literature and government reports refer
to the working conditions of charcoal producers as unsafe; government
officials and research papers alike mention these ‘hazards’ in passing.
Additional indicators of social threats include widespread child labor,
gender differences in education and production outcomes, extreme price
variability often at the hands of merchants and the lack of potential
for poverty alleviation in current methods of production. The lack of
regulation in the charcoal industry creates the highest risk of
exploitation
and safety hazards, yet no studies have investigated in-depth the
health and social risks associated with the production of this highly
demanded fuel.
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ABSRACT - [ Total Page(s): 1 ]Air quality continues to be among the top environmental concerns in Nigeria. In nigeria, where majority of the rural population uses charcoal, very little is known about the impacts of the life-cycle of the fuel on the livelihoods of the producers, who endure significant health, safety, and environmental risks for marginal gain in a highly lucrative industry. Population increases and deviations from the energy ladder model suggest that charcoal demand for heating and cooking in Sub-Saharan A ... Continue reading---
