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The Antiplasmodial Activity Of Extracts Of Edible Mushroom: Agaricus Bisporus On Plasmodium Berghei In Albino Mice
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CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Edible Mushrooms
Edible mushrooms are the fleshy and edible fruit bodies of several species of macrofungi (fungi which bear fruiting structures that are large enough to be seen with the naked eye). They can appear either below ground (hypogeous) or above ground (epigeous) where they may be picked by hand (Chang and Philip, 2009). Edibility may be defined by criteria that include absence of poisonous effects on humans and desirable taste and aroma (Arora, 2007; Mattila et al., 2010).
Edible mushrooms are consumed for their nutritional value and they are occasionally consumed for their supposed medicinal value. Mushrooms consumed by those practicing folk medicine are known as medicinal mushrooms (Ejelonu et al., 2015). While psychedelic mushrooms are occasionally consumed for recreational or entheogenic purposes, they can produce strong psychological effects, and are therefore not commonly used as food (Boa, 2012).
Edible mushrooms include many fungal species that are either harvested wild or cultivated. Easily cultivatable and common wild mushrooms are often available in markets, and those that are more difficult to obtain (such as the prized truffle and matsutake) may be collected on a smaller scale by private gatherers. Some preparations may render certain poisonous mushrooms fit for consumption (Mattila et al., 2010).
Before assuming that any wild mushroom is edible, it should be identified. Accurate determination and proper identification of a species is the only safe way to ensure edibility, and the only safeguard against possible accident. Some mushrooms that are edible for most people can cause allergic reactions in some individuals, and old or improperly stored specimens can cause food poisoning (Boa, 2012). Great care should therefore be taken when eating any fungus for the first time, and only small quantities should be consumed in case of individual allergies. Deadly poisonous mushrooms that are frequently confused with edible mushrooms and responsible for many fatal poisonings include several species of the Amanita genus, in particular, Amanita phalloides, the death cap. It is therefore better to eat only a few, easily recognizable species, than to experiment indiscriminately. Moreover, even species of mushrooms that normally are edible, may be dangerous, as mushrooms growing in polluted locations can accumulate pollutants such as heavy metals (Kalac et al., 2010).
2.2 Identification of edible mushrooms
Identifying mushrooms requires a basic understanding of their macroscopic structure. Most are Basidiomycetes and gilled. Their spores, called basidiospores, are produced on the gills and fall in a fine rain of powder from under the caps as a result. At the microscopic level the basidiospores are shot off basidia and then fall between the gills in the dead air space. As a result, for most mushrooms, if the cap is cut off and placed gill-side-down overnight, a powdery impression reflecting the shape of the gills (or pores, or spines, etc.) is formed (when the fruit body is sporulating). The colour of the powdery print, called a spore print, is used to help classify mushrooms and can help to identify them. Spore print colours include white (most common), brown, black, purple-brown, pink, yellow, and creamy, but almost never blue, green, or red (Arora, 2007).
While modern identification of mushrooms is quickly becoming molecular, the standard methods for identification are still used by most and have developed into a fine art harking back to medieval times and the Victorian era, combined with microscopic examination. The presence of juices upon breaking, bruising reactions, odours, tastes, shades of colour, habitat, habit, and season are all considered by both amateur and professional mycologists. Tasting and smelling mushrooms carries its own hazards because of poisons and allergens. Chemical tests are also used for some genera (Chang and Philip, 2009).
In general, identification to genus can often be accomplished in the field using a local mushroom guide. Identification to species, however, requires more effort; one must remember that a mushroom develops from a button stage into a mature structure, and only the latter can provide certain characteristics needed for the identification of the species (Kalac et al., 2010). However, over-mature specimens lose features and cease producing spores. Many novices have mistaken humid water marks on paper for white spore prints, or discoloured paper from oozing liquids on lamella edges for coloured spored prints.
2.3 History of mushroom use
Mycophagy, the act of consuming mushrooms, dates back to ancient times. Edible mushroom species have been found in association with 13,000-year-old archaeological sites in Chile, but the first reliable evidence of mushroom consumption dates to several hundred years BC in China. The Chinese value mushrooms for medicinal properties as well as for food. Ancient Romans and Greeks, particularly the upper classes, used mushrooms for culinary purposes (Boa, 2012). Food tasters were employed by Roman emperors to ensure that mushrooms were safe to eat (Jordan, 2011).
Mushrooms are also easily preserved, and historically have provided additional nutrition over winter. Many cultures around the world have either used or continue to use psilocybin mushrooms for spiritual purposes as well as medicinal mushrooms in folk medicine, although these are not considered "edible" mushrooms in the culinary sense (Jordan, 2011).
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ABSRACT - [ Total Page(s): 1 ]ABSTRACT IS COMING SOON ... Continue reading---
CHAPTER ONE - [ Total Page(s): 2 ]1.4 Aim and Objectives1.4.1 AimTo determine the antiplasmodial activity of extracts of edible mushroom: Agaricus bisporus on Plasmodium berghei in albino mice.1.4.2 ObjectivesThe specific objectives of this study were to:a. assess the analytical components of edible mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) using Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrophotometry (GCMS).b. determine the antiplasmodial activity of edible mushroom extract: (Agaricus bisporus) on Plasmodium berghei.c. ... Continue reading---
CHAPTER THREE - [ Total Page(s): 2 ]CHAPTER THREE3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS3.1 Sample Collection Sufficient mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus) was gotten from Igunsin village, Akure north in Ondo State, Nigeria and taken to the Herbarium Service Unit (HSU), Department of Plant Biology, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria for authentication with a voucher number of F.H.I. 11295.3.2 Drying and ExtractionThe mushroom samples were cut into pieces using a sharp knife. The pieces were air-dried properly ... Continue reading---
CHAPTER FOUR - [ Total Page(s): 6 ]CHAPTER FOUR4.0 RESULTSThe compounds present in the aqueous and alcoholic extract of Agaricus bisporus were identified by GC-MS analysis after analysis. Aqueous mushroom extract was labelled as A while the alcoholic extract was labelled B. The active principle Molecular Weight (MW), Concentration (%), Molecular Formula (MF), and Retention Time (RT). Nine compounds were identified in the extracts. The prevailing compounds in the aqueous extract were 1-Butanamine, 2-methyl-N- (2-methylbtylid ... Continue reading---
CHAPTER FIVE - [ Total Page(s): 2 ]CHAPTER FIVE5.0 DiscussionThis result of the Gas Chromatograghy Mass Spectrophotometry identified the compounds present in the fruiting body of A. bisporus. The prevailing compounds in the aqueous extract were 1-Butanamine, 2-methyl-N- (2-methylbtylidene) (2.03%), 2-Pyrorolidinone (7.46%) while the prevailing compounds in the alcoholic extract were n-Hexadecanoic acid (19.47%) and 9,12-Octadecadienoic acid (Z,Z) (80.53%). According to Isaka et al. (2001), these are some of the active ingre ... Continue reading---
REFRENCES - [ Total Page(s): 2 ]REFERENCESAdams, M., Christen, M., Plitzko, I., Zimmermann, S., Brun, R., Kaiser, M., Hamburger, M. (2010) Antiplasmodial lanostanes from the Ganoderma lucidum mushroom. Journal of Natural Products, 73:897–900.Akindahunsi, A. A., and Oyetayo, F. L. (2012). Nutrient and anti-nutrient distribution of edible mushroom, Pleurotus tuberregium (Fries) Singer. Food Science and Technology, 39(5):548-553.Anthony, M.P., Burrows, J.N., Duparc, S., Moehrle, J.J.,Wells, T.N.C. (2012) The global pipelin ... Continue reading---
