Anti-plasmodial Property Of Moringa Oleifera Seed Extract On Swiss Mice

2.2.1 Control Measures
Vector control is an effective measure of malaria prevention and elimination. Anopheles mosquitoes can be reduced via the use of insecticide-treated bed nets (ITNs) and indoor spraying of residual insecticides (IRSs) (CDC, 2015) even if the effectiveness is threatened by malaria mosquitoes developing resistance. However, the impact of pyrethroid resistance on ITN effectiveness is not yet well established (WHO, 2016). Individual bite protection methods, insect repellents and protective clothing, have been used to reduce malaria transmission by mosquitoes (MAL WEST, 2016). Jaleta et al. (2016) demonstrated that non-host (Chicken) volatiles can provide protection to mosquito-vectored diseases. Uniquely, some genetic abnormalities in RBCs confer resistance to malaria. This include, among others, deficiency in pyruvate kinase, polymorphic glycophorins, ovalocytosis, spherocytosis, elliptocytosis, sickle cell traits, thalassaemia traits and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency (Kwiatkowski, 2005; Daily and Pardis, 2008; Hedrick, 2011).
Remarkable ways to interfere transmission are disrupting steroid hormone signaling in mosquitoes (Childs et al., 2016), use of transgenic mosquitoes (Taylor and John, 2009; Kokoza et al., 2010), using of paratransgenesis for delivering anti-Plasmodium effector molecules by genetically modified symbiotic microorganism of the insect (Hurwitz et al., 2011) and/or trans-infection of mosquitoes with symbiotic bacteria and fungi (Walker and Luciano, 2011). The use of transgenic procedure can improve the sterile insect technique (SIT) for anopheles induced by radiation (Catteruccia et al. 2009).
Intermittent Preventive Therapy (IPT) is another malaria control tool in pregnant women, infants and preschool children where transmission is seasonal (Bardají et al., 2012; Meremikwu et al., 2012). Repeated Ivermectin Mass Drug Administration (MDA) could also help to control transmission (Alout et al., 2014). Lastly, chemoprophylactic drugs can be used to prevent infection in travellers (Jacquerioz and Croft, 2009).
2.3 Malaria Vaccine
The emergence and spread of drug and insecticide resistance has been limiting the current malaria control measures, thus safe and effective vaccine is required to achieve the world malaria eradication programme. So far, three types of vaccine candidate have been intensively investigated: pre-erythrocytic vaccines; blood-stage vaccines; and transmission-blocking vaccines (Janet et al., 2016).
Pre-erythrocytic vaccines target the sporozoites and/or hepatic stages of the parasite. Some vaccines of this group are RTS,S/AS01 in post phase III trial (MVI, 2016), P. falciparum sporozoite vaccine (PfSPZ) in Phase II trials, cell-traversal protein for ookinetes and sporozoites (CelTOS) under phase Ia clinical trial and vaccine of chimpanzee adenovirus expressing CS (CSVAC) also in Phase I (Arama and Troye-Blomberg, 2014).