Anti-plasmodial Property Of Moringa Oleifera Seed Extract On Swiss Mice

Several asexual blood stage vaccines, most target merozoite antigens, are in clinical researches. The commonly known candidates are AMA1 (Sagara et al., 2009), MSP-1 (Ogutu et al., 2009) and MSP-3 (Jepsen et al., 2013). None has resulted in clear clinical protection, probably due to the highly polymorphic nature of the vaccine structures (Takala et al., 2009). But efforts to enhance the efficacy with a novel adjuvants (Ellis et al., 2010; Sagara et al., 2009) using viral vector prime-boost strategies (Hill et al., 2010) have been increasing. An exception is VAR2CSA, studied in the search of a vaccine for prevention of pregnancy-associated malaria (Rogerson et al., 2007). Multigravidae who have acquired antibodies are indeed protected from pregnancy-associated malaria. Vaccine candidates directed against VAR2CSA are under development (Hviid, 2010). Conversely, new non-polymorphic falciparum ligands, CX3CL1 binding proteins (CBP 1 and 2), are currently discovered by Hermand and his co-workers, which provides a new opportunity for innovative vaccination approaches (Hermand et al., 2016).
Transmission-blocking vaccines (TBVs) target surface proteins expressed on gametocytes, zygotes and ookinetes to prevent parasite development in the mosquito midgut by specific host antibodies, complement proteins, and cytokines [Sutherland, 2009]. The leading vaccine candidates in this group include falciparum ookinete surface antigens Pfs25 (Arakawa et al., 2005) and Pfs28 and their vivax homologues Pvs25 and Pvs28 (Hisaeda et al., 2000; Arevalo-Herrera et al., 2005).
2.4 The Experimental Plant
2.4.1 Moringa oleifera (Horse radish or Drumstick tree)
It is believed to have originated from India but now largely cultivated in Sudan and many other countries. It was identified in Ghana in the Volta region where it is referred to as “Babati”. In the Northern and Upper West Regions, it is referred to as “Wobnyukuo” (Donkor, 1996).
In the monogeneric genus Moringa of Moringaceae family there are 13 species (namely, M. arborea, indigenous to Kenya; M. rivae indigenous to Kenya and Ethiopia; M. borziana, indigenous to Somalia and Kenia; M. pygmaea indigenous to Somalia; M. longituba indigenous to Kenia, Ethiopia and Somalia; M. stenopetala indigenous to Kenya and Ethiopia; M ruspoliana indigenous to Ethiopia; M. ovalifolia indigenous to Namibia and Angola; M. drouhardii, M. hildebrandi indigenous to Madagascar; M. peregrine indigenous o Red sea and Horn of Africa, M. concanensis, Moringa oleifera indigenous to sub-Himalayan tracts of Northern India (Paliwal and Sharma, 2011), among which Moringa oleifera (Figure 1) has so far become the most used and studied. This species is a fast growing soft wood tree that can reach 12 m in height and is indigenous to the Himalayan foothills (northern India Pakistan and Nepal) (Roloff et al., 2009; Sharma et al., 2011). Its multiple uses and potential attracted the attention of farmers and researchers in past historical eras. Ayurvedic traditional medicine says that Moringa oleifera can prevent 300 diseases and its leaves have been exploited both for preventive and curative purposes (Ganguly, 2013). Moreover, a study in the Virudhunagar district of Tamil Nadu India reports Moringa among the species utilized by traditional Siddha healers (Mutheeswaran et al., 2011). Ancient Egyptians used Moringa oleifera oil for its cosmetic value and skin preparation (Mahmood et al., 2010); even if the species never became Popular among Greeks and Romans, they were aware of its medical properties (Fahey, 2005). Moringa oleifera has been grown and consumed in its original areas until recently (the 1990s) when a few researchers started to study its potential use in clarifying water treatments, while only later were its nutritional and medical properties “discovered” and the species was spread throughout almost all tropical countries. In 2001, the first international conference on Moringa oleifera was held in Tanzania and since then the number of congresses and studies increased disseminating the information about the incredible properties of Moringa oleifera. Now this species has been dubbed “miracle tree”, or “natural gift”, or “mother’s best friend”. Moringa oleifera grows in any tropical and subtropical country with peculiar environmental features, namely, dry to moist tropical or subtropical clime, with annual precipitation of 760 to 2500 mm (it requires less than 800 mm irrigation) and temperature between 18 and 28 °C. It grows in any soil type, but heavy clay and waterlogged, with pH between 4.5 and 8, at an altitude up to 2000 m (Palada, 2006; Nouman et al., 2014).
A study on local uses and geographical distribution of Moringa oleifer that covers the major agro-ecological region in Nigeria, clearly established that “though considered a not indigenous species, Moringa oleifera has found wide acceptance among various ethnic Nigeria, who have exploited different uses (e.g., food, medicine, fodder etc.).
Nowadays, Moringa oleifera and its derivatives are distributed mainly in Middle East, African and Asian countries (Popoola et al., 2013) and are still spreading to other areas.