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Perceived Causes And Prevention Of Malnutrition Among Primary School Pupils
[A CASE STUDY ILORIN EAST LOCAL GOVERNMENT, KWARA STATE]
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Child Malnutrition and Cognitive Development
One often – cited concern about under nutrition in children is that it may have negative consequences for cognitive development presumably because a lack of food deprives the brain of essential nutrients. Although this is generally an issue in the developing world, there is also a fairly sizeable literature on this topic in the medical field for the United States. Corman and Chaikind (1998), for example, find that low – birth weight children score lower on tests of academic performance. Alaimo et. al., (2001) report hat children aged 6 to11 in food insecure households scored lower on arithmetic tests, were more likely to have repeated a grade and to have seen a psychologist, and had difficulty getting along with other children. Winicki and Jemison (2003) also find that Good insecurity negatively impacts the academic performance of kindergartners. Recent research provides compelling evidence that under nutrition can have detrimental effects on the cognitive development of children and on their behaviour and that this may even impact their later adult productivity (Center On Hunger, 1998). Weinreib et al. (2002) report that severe child hunger is correlated with a greater incidence of behaviour problems and is also correlated with a greater level of respond anxiety/depression.
There is evidence that programs such as providing breakfast to school age children have been effective in mitigating these consequences (Murphy et al. 1998). This has become such a strongly held view that some schools purportedly manipulated the nutritional content of their lunches to improve their test scores (Figlio and Winicki 2002). At the other end of the weight distribution, there are concerns that overweight children may also suffer from nutrient deficiency (Nead et al. 2004), as well as low self – esteem and that low self – esteem may lead to lower academic performance or a perceived inability to perform well in school (Davison and Burch 2001). This also appears to be the case of children (Eisenberg et al. 2003), with the effect increasing with age (Strauss 2000). Furthermore, overweight children are more likely to be more socially isolated compared to adolescents who are not overweight (Strauss and Pollack 2003). There is also evidence that overweight children have lower academic performance (Datar et al. 2004), and are more likely to have behaviour problems (Datar and Strum, 2004), to act as bullies, and to be bullied (Janssen et al. 2004). The social functioning of overweight children is likely to be reduced so much that Schwimmer et al. (2003) compare their qualities of life to those to children with cancer.
Management of Severe Malnutrition
Management in severe malnourished children includes stabilization and rehabilitation phases. In stabilization phase, hypoglycemia, hypothermia, infection and dehydration must be assessed. Hypoglycemia and hypothermia occur with fasting of four to six hour’s duration or due to serious systemic infection. These disorders usually respond to early and frequent feedings and temperature control. Blood glucose should be monitored if hypothermia or apnea occurs (Bachou, Tumwine, Mwadime, Tylleskar 2006).
Feeding should be initiated using a formula containing 75 – Kcal/100mls (Known as F-75 formula) soon after the child reaches the hospital. Infants are fed orally using a cup, spoon or syringe and nasogastic tube if there is impaired consciousness or there is vomiting, tachypnea, or painful stomatitis. Hypothermia is common to malnourished child and is considered a sign of infection. If the rectal temperature is <35.50C, the child should be warmed by using a warning blanket or by close contact with the mother’s body. Malnutrition which co – exists with diarrhea can be acute or chronic and can cause death due to either dehydration or electrolyte imbalance (Mitra, Rahman, Fuchs, 2000). Dehydration must be differentiated from sepsis, although the two conditions sometimes co – exist. Dehydration is treated with oral rehydration (rehydration solution for malnutrition) which has high amount of potassium with low amounts of sodium and is balanced for better absorption of these minerals (Head, 2000). Intravenous hydration in severely malnourished children may lead to over hydration and heart failure because of weak heart muscles and poor contractility. In Kampala – Uganda, the cause of death in malnourished children due to excessive infusion was 56.8% and 71% due to transfusion within 48 hours (Bachou, Tumwine, Mwadime, Tylleskär, 2006). Intravenous fluids must be used when there is shock due to dehydration. Half – strength Darrow’s solution with 5 percent glucose is preferred in this situation (Head, 2000).
Treatment of infections is required as early as possible since most of these patients have systemic infections. Oral sulfamethoxazole trimethoprim suspension is recommended for treatment of non – severe infections like UTI. In case of complications like hypoglycemia, hypothermia or lethargy, concomitant sepsis must be suspected and coverage with a wide spectrum of antibiotics (Ampicillin, Gentamycin or Chloramphenicol) is recommended by WHO (WHO, 2005). Usually malnourished children improve appetite from two to six weeks. Feeding formula is gradually changed from F – 75 to F – 100 which provides 100kcal. Mineral supplements are also recommended in the rehabilitation phase. Folic acid, vitamin A and zinc are recommended during admission while Iron is given in the rehabilitation phase. These children also need emotional and sensory stimulation throughout the initial and rehabilitation phases. Treatment should continue until the child’s weight – for – height Z – score is >-1 SD. During discharge, mothers are fully trained to continue with care at home and any social problem is addressed. Follow up of the child is done for about six mothers at the clinic in order to look for child’s wellbeing and provide ongoing counseling for proper diet, danger signs and address other social problems (WHO, 2005).
Malnutrition with Co – Morbidities
A study conducted in Nigeria showed that 9% of children hospitalized for severe malnutrition were HIV infected (Madec. Germanaud, Moya – Alvarez, Alkassoum, Issa, Amadou, 2011). Malnutrition is multi – factorial and HIV can induce or aggravate it. In Sub – Saharan Africa, mortality is higher in HIV infected children and ranges from 25% to 38% with severe malnutrition than in infected children (Jobiba, Andrew, Theresa, Catherine, 2008); Irena, Mwambazi, & Mulenga, 2011). During re – nutrition, mortality was still found to be higher in HIV positive that HIV negative children in Malavi (Jobiba, Andrew, Theresa, Catherine, 2008; Fergusson & Tomkins, 2009).
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ABSRACT - [ Total Page(s): 1 ]ABSTRACTThe study examined the incidence of malnutrition among children in Ilorin East Local Government area of Kwara State. The objective of the study is to explore sickness as a result of malnutrition among children, investigate the majority of children as a result of the malnutrition among children, low body resistance to diseases, stunted growth as a result of malnutrition among children and succumb to infections as a result of malnutrition among children in Ilorin East Local Government Area ... Continue reading---
TABLE OF CONTENTS - [ Total Page(s): 1 ]TABLE OF CONTENTContents Title page Certification Dedication Acknowledgement Abstract Chapter One INTRODUCTION Background of the Study Statement of the Problem Purpose of the Study Research Questions Research Hypothesis Significance of the Study Delimitations of the Study Operational Definition of Term Chapter Two INTRODUCTION Introduction Definition of the Concept Malnutrition Malnutrition in AfricaMalnutrition among children and its Influence on Body Reducing Malnutritio ... Continue reading---
CHAPTER ONE - [ Total Page(s): 3 ]Infections influence body size and growth through their effects on metabolism and nutrition. Additionally, UNICEF conceptual framework also recognize poor caring practices as equally important cause of malnutrition (UNICEF, 1990). Environmental factors have a profound effect on health and can make nutritional problems worse. A child who is well fed but drinks contaminated water and lives in polluted environment will not grow up healthy (UN, 2004). Studies have shown the association between i ... Continue reading---
CHAPTER THREE - [ Total Page(s): 2 ]Reliability of the Instrument Reliability has to do with the consistency of the result, According to Koul (2001), Rose, (2001) is the stability, dependability and predictability of the tests or of the method been used. The reliability of an instrument is the degree to which it yields consistent results, when it is administered over a numbers of times. The researcher employed test retest method to find the reliability of the instrument. The researcher administered sample of twenty (20) ques ... Continue reading---
CHAPTER FOUR - [ Total Page(s): 5 ]Test of Hypotheses Hypothesis One Ho1: Sickness is not a significant result of malnutrition among children in Ilorin West local Government Area.Table 2 showed chi – square summary of sickness and malnutrition among children in Ilorin west Local Government Area, The calculated value is 71.866 and the table value is 16.92, degree of freedom of 9 at 0.05 alpha level of significance. The decision is to reject the null hypotheses if the calculated value is greater than cri ... Continue reading---
CHAPTER FIVE - [ Total Page(s): 1 ]CHAPTER FIVESUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMANDATION Summary The study investigated the incidence of malnutrition among children in Ilorin East Local Government Area of Kwara state. Data collected from two hundred (200) respondents was presented with appropriate tables with the use of frequency count and percentages while five hypothesis were tested in study the use of chi-square (x2) statistical method at 0.05 significance level. It has been able o found out in the study influence of sickness, in ... Continue reading---
REFRENCES - [ Total Page(s): 2 ]REFERENCESAjieroh, V. (2010). A Quantitative Analysis of Determinations of child and Maternal Malnutrition in Nigeria IFPRI Nigeria Strategy Support Program Brief No. 11, 2010.Alaimo, Katherine, Christine M. Olson, and Edward A. Fronggillo Jr.(2001). ‘’Food Insufficiency and American School-Aged Children’s Cognitive, Academic, and Psychosocial Development.’’ Pediatrics 108(1): 44-53.Babatunde, R.O. & Qaim, M. (2010). Impact of Off – farm income on Food Se ... Continue reading---
