Study Of The Relationship Between Job Satisfaction And Organisational Commitment

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

The Concept of Job Satisfaction
Motivation to work well is usually related to job satisfaction, but the nature of this relationship is not clear. One view is that the motivation required for a person to achieve a high level of performance is satisfaction with the job. Mullins (1993). Satisfaction is not the same as motivation. Job satisfaction is more of an attitude, an internal state. It could, for example, be associated with a personal feeling of achievement; either quantitative or qualitative. Motivation is a process which may lead to job satisfaction refers to the attitudes and feelings people have about their work. Positive and favorable attitudes towards the job indicate job satisfaction. Negative and unfavourable attitudes towards the job indicate job dissatisfaction Mullins (1993). Morale is often defined as being equivalent to job satisfaction. Thus, Guion (1958) defines morale as the extent to which an individuals needs are satisfied and the extent to which the stemming from his usual work situation. Other definitions stress the group aspects of morale. Gilmer (1991) suggests that morale is a feeling of being accepted by and belonging to a group employees through adherence to common goals. He distinguishes between morale as a group variable, related to the degree to which group members feel attracted to their group and desire to remain a member of it, and job attitude as an individual variable, related to the feelings employees have about their job.

HISTORY
One of the biggest preludes to the study of job satisfaction was the Hawthorne studies (1924-1933). These studies sought to find the effects of various conditions on workers’ productivity. These studies sought to find the effects of various conditions on workers productivity. These studies ultimately showed that novel changes in work conditions temporally increase productivity (called the Hawthorne Effect). It was later found that this increase resulted, not from the new conditions, but from the knowledge of being observed. This finding provided strong evidence that people work for purposes other than pay, which paved the way for researchers to investigate other factors in job satisfaction. Scientific management (aka Taylorism) also had a significant impact on the study of job satisfaction. Frederick Winslor Taylor’s 1911 book, Principles of Scientific Management, argued that there was a single best way to perform any given work task. The initial use of scientific management by industries greatly increased productivity because workers were forced to work at a faster pace. However, workers became exhausted and dissatisfied, thus leaving researchers with new questions to answer regarding job satisfaction. It should also be noted that the work of W. L Bryan, Walter Dill Scott and Hugo Munsterberg set the tone for Taylor’s work.

Some argue that Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory a motivation theory laid the foundation for job satisfaction theory. This theory explains that people seek to satisfy five specific needs, social needs, self-esteem needs, and self-actualization. This model served as a good basis from which early researchers could develop job satisfaction theories.

MODELS OF JOB SATISFACTION

AFFECTS THEORY.
Edwin A Locke’s Range of Affect Theory (1976) is arguably the most famous job satisfaction model. The main premise of this theory is that satisfaction is determined by a discrepancy between what one wants in a job and what one has in a job.

Further, the theory states that how much one values a given facet of work (e.g. the degree of autonomy in a position) moderates how satisfied/dissatisfied one becomes when expectations are/aren’t met. When a person values a particular facet of a job, his satisfaction is more greatly impacted both positively (when expectations are met) and negatively (when expectations are not met, compared to one who does not value that facet. To illustrate, if employee A values autonomy in the workplace and employee B is indifferent about autonomy, then Employee A would be more satisfied in a position that offers a high degree of autonomy and less satisfied in a position with little or no autonomy compared to Employee B. this theory also states that too much of a particular facet will produce stronger feelings of dissatisfaction the more a worker values that facet.

DISPOSITIONAL THEORY
This is a very general theory that suggests that people have innate dispositions that cause them to have tendencies toward a certain level of satisfaction, regardless one’s job. This approach became a notable explanation of job satisfaction in light of evidence that job satisfaction tends to be stable over time and across careers and jobs. Research also indicates that identical twins have similar levels of job satisfaction. A significant model that narrowed the scope of the dispositional theory was the core self-evaluations Model, purposed by Timothy A. Judge in 1998. Judge argued that there are four core self-evaluations that determine one’s disposition towards job satisfaction: self-esteem, general selfefficacy, Locus of control. This model states that higher levels of selfesteem (the value one places on his/her self) and general self-efficacy (the belief in one’s own competence) lead to high and neuroticism. This model work satisfaction. Having. Having an internal locus of control (believing one has control over his/her own life, as opposed to outside forces having control) leads to higher job satisfaction. Finally, however levels of neuroticism lead to higher job satisfaction.

TWO-FACTOR THEORY (MOTIVATOR-HYGIENE THEORY)
Frederick Herzberg’s two factor theory (also known as Motivator Hygiene Theory) attempts to explain satisfaction and motivation in the workplace. This theory states that satisfaction and dissatisfaction are driven by different factors –motivation and hygiene factors, respectively. An employee’s motivation to work is continually related to job satisfaction of as subordinate. Motivation can be seen as an inner force that drives individuals to attain personal and organisational goals (Hoskinson, Porter, and Wrench, P.133). Motivating factors are those aspects of the job that make people want to perform, and provide people with satisfaction, promotion opportunities. These motivating factors are considered to be intrinsic to the job, or the work carried out. Hygiene factors include aspects of the working environment such as pay-company policies, supervisory practices, and other working conditions.

While Herzberg’s model has stimulated much research, researchers have been unable to reliably empirically prove the model, with Hackman & Oldham suggesting that Herzberg’s original formulation of the model may have been a methodological artifact. Furthermore, the theory does not consider individual differences, conversely predicting all employees will react in an identical manner to changes in motivating/ hygiene factors are to be measured.

JOB CHARACTERISTICS MODEL
Hackman and Oldham proposed the job characteristics model, which is widely used as a framework to study how particular job characteristics impact on job outcomes, including job satisfaction. The model states that there are five core job characteristics (skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback) which impact three critical psychological states (experienced meaning fullness, experienced responsibility for outcomes, and knowledge of the actual results), in turn influencing work outcomes (job satisfaction, absenteeism, work motivation, etc). the five core job characteristics can be combined to form a motivating potential score (MPS) for a job, which can be used as an index of how likely a job is to affect an employee’s attitudes and behaviours.

FACTORS AFFECTING JOB SATISFACTION
The level of job satisfaction is affected by intrinsic and extrinsic motivating factors, the quality of supervision, social relationships with the work group and the degree to which individuals succeed or fail in their work. Purcell et al (2003) believe that discretionary behavior that helps the firm to be successful is most likely to happen when employees are well motivated and feel committed to the organization, and when the job gives them high levels of satisfaction. Their research found that the key factors affecting job satisfaction were career opportunities; job influence, teamwork and job challenge (Armstrong, 2003).

Furthermore, the level of job satisfaction is affected by a wide range of variables relating to individual, social, cultural, organisational and environmental factors.
1. Social factors include: relationships with co-workers, group working and norms, opportunities for integration, informal organization.
2. Cultural factors include: underlying attitudes, beliefs and values.
3. Organisational factors includes: nature and size, formal structure, personnel policies and procedures, employee relations, nature of the work, technology and work organization, supervision and styles of leadership, management systems, working conditions.
4. Environmental factors include: economic, social, technical and governmental influences.